THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES

U.S. Constitution Online
Contents

* Preamble
* Article 1 - The Legislative Branch
o Section 1 - The Legislature
o Section 2 - The House
o Section 3 - The Senate
o Section 4 - Elections, Meetings
o Section 5 - Membership, Rules, Journals, Adjournment
o Section 6 - Compensation
o Section 7 - Revenue Bills, Legislative Process, Presidential Veto
o Section 8 - Powers of Congress
o Section 9 - Limits on Congress
o Section 10 - Powers Prohibited of States
* Article 2 - The Executive Branch
o Section 1 - The President
o Section 2 - Civilian Power over Military, Cabinet, Pardon Power, Appointments
o Section 3 - State of the Union, Convening Congress
o Section 4 - Disqualification
* Article 3 - The Judicial Branch
o Section 1 - Judicial Powers
o Section 2 - Trial by Jury, Original Jurisdiction, Jury Trials
o Section 3 - Treason
* Article 4 - The States
o Section 1 - Each State to Honor All Others
o Section 2 - State Citizens, Extradition
o Section 3 - New States
o Section 4 - Republican Government
* Article 5 - Amendment
* Article 6 - Debts, Supremacy, Oaths
* Article 7 - Ratification
* Signatories
* Amendments
o Amendment 1 - Freedom of Religion, Press, Expression
o Amendment 2 - Right to Bear Arms
o Amendment 3 - Quartering of Soldiers
o Amendment 4 - Search and Seizure
o Amendment 5 - Trial and Punishment, Compensation for Takings
o Amendment 6 - Right to Speedy Trial, Confrontation of Witnesses
o Amendment 7 - Trial by Jury in Civil Cases
o Amendment 8 - Cruel and Unusual Punishment
o Amendment 9 - Construction of Constitution
o Amendment 10 - Powers of the States and People
o Amendment 11 - Judicial Limits
o Amendment 12 - Choosing the President, Vice President
o Amendment 13 - Slavery Abolished
o Amendment 14 - Citizenship Rights
o Amendment 15 - Race No Bar to Vote
o Amendment 16 - Status of Income Tax Clarified
o Amendment 17 - Senators Elected by Popular Vote
o Amendment 18 - Liquor Abolished
o Amendment 19 - Women's Suffrage
o Amendment 20 - Presidential, Congressional Terms
o Amendment 21 - Amendment 18 Repealed
o Amendment 22 - Presidential Term Limits
o Amendment 23 - Presidential Vote for District of Columbia
o Amendment 24 - Poll Taxes Barred
o Amendment 25 - Presidential Disability and Succession
o Amendment 26 - Voting Age Set to 18 Years
o Amendment 27 - Limiting Congressional Pay Increases

The Constitution of the United States
Preamble Note

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
Article I - The Legislative Branch Note

Section 1 - The Legislature

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2 - The House

The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

(Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.) (The previous sentence in parentheses was modified by the 14th Amendment, section 2.) The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five and Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section 3 - The Senate

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, (chosen by the Legislature thereof,) (The preceding words in parentheses superseded by 17th Amendment, section 1.) for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; (and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.) (The preceding words in parentheses were superseded by the 17th Amendment, section 2.)

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section 4 - Elections, Meetings

The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Place of Chusing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall (be on the first Monday in December,) (The preceding words in parentheses were superseded by the 20th Amendment, section 2.) unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5 - Membership, Rules, Journals, Adjournment

Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6 - Compensation

(The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States.) (The preceding words in parentheses were modified by the 27th Amendment.) They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section 7 - Revenue Bills, Legislative Process, Presidential Veto

All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section 8 - Powers of Congress

The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and Post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section 9 - Limits on Congress

The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

(No capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.) (Section in parentheses clarified by the 16th Amendment.)

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince or foreign State.

Section 10 - Powers prohibited of States

No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II - The Executive Branch Note

Section 1 - The President Note1 Note2

The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

(The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not lie an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; a quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice-President.) (This clause in parentheses was superseded by the 12th Amendment.)

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

(In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.) (This clause in parentheses has been modified by the 20th and 25th Amendments.)

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section 2 - Civilian Power over Military, Cabinet, Pardon Power, Appointments

The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section 3 - State of the Union, Convening Congress

He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section 4 - Disqualification

The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.
Article III - The Judicial Branch Note

Section 1 - Judicial powers

The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section 2 - Trial by Jury, Original Jurisdiction, Jury Trials

(The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; to Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State; between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.) (This section in parentheses is modified by the 11th Amendment.)

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section 3 - Treason Note

Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.

The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.
Article IV - The States

Section 1 - Each State to Honor all others

Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.

Section 2 - State citizens, Extradition

The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

(No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, But shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.) (This clause in parentheses is superseded by the 13th Amendment.)

Section 3 - New States

New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section 4 - Republican government

The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.
Article V - Amendment Note1 - Note2 - Note3

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.
Article VI - Debts, Supremacy, Oaths

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.
Article VII - Ratification Documents

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names. Note

Go Washington - President and deputy from Virginia

New Hampshire - John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman

Massachusetts - Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King

Connecticut - Wm Saml Johnson, Roger Sherman

New York - Alexander Hamilton

New Jersey - Wil Livingston, David Brearley, Wm Paterson, Jona. Dayton

Pensylvania - B Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robt Morris, Geo. Clymer, Thos FitzSimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouv Morris

Delaware - Geo. Read, Gunning Bedford jun, John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jaco. Broom

Maryland - James McHenry, Dan of St Tho Jenifer, Danl Carroll

Virginia - John Blair, James Madison Jr.

North Carolina - Wm Blount, Richd Dobbs Spaight, Hu Williamson

South Carolina - J. Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler

Georgia - William Few, Abr Baldwin

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary
The Amendments Note

The following are the Amendments to the Constitution. The first ten Amendments collectively are commonly known as the Bill of Rights. History

Amendment 1 - Freedom of Religion, Press, Expression. Ratified 12/15/1791. Note

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment 2 - Right to Bear Arms. Ratified 12/15/1791. Note

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment 3 - Quartering of Soldiers. Ratified 12/15/1791. Note

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment 4 - Search and Seizure. Ratified 12/15/1791.

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment 5 - Trial and Punishment, Compensation for Takings. Ratified 12/15/1791.

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment 6 - Right to Speedy Trial, Confrontation of Witnesses. Ratified 12/15/1791.

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment 7 - Trial by Jury in Civil Cases. Ratified 12/15/1791.

In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment 8 - Cruel and Unusual Punishment. Ratified 12/15/1791.

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment 9 - Construction of Constitution. Ratified 12/15/1791.

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

Amendment 10 - Powers of the States and People. Ratified 12/15/1791. Note

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Amendment 11 - Judicial Limits. Ratified 2/7/1795. Note History

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

Amendment 12 - Choosing the President, Vice-President. Ratified 6/15/1804. Note History The Electoral College

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;

The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;

The person having the greatest Number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.

The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

Amendment 13 - Slavery Abolished. Ratified 12/6/1865. History

1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 14 - Citizenship Rights. Ratified 7/9/1868. Note History

1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.

2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.

5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

Amendment 15 - Race No Bar to Vote. Ratified 2/3/1870. History

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 16 - Status of Income Tax Clarified. Ratified 2/3/1913. Note History

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

Amendment 17 - Senators Elected by Popular Vote. Ratified 4/8/1913. History

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures.

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct.

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution.

Amendment 18 - Liquor Abolished. Ratified 1/16/1919. Repealed by Amendment 21, 12/5/1933. History

1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment 19 - Women's Suffrage. Ratified 8/18/1920. History

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 20 - Presidential, Congressional Terms. Ratified 1/23/1933. History

1. The terms of the President and Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representatives at noon on the 3d day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this article had not been ratified; and the terms of their successors shall then begin.

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day.

3. If, at the time fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the time fixed for the beginning of his term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President elect shall act as President until a President shall have qualified; and the Congress may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President elect shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act accordingly until a President or Vice President shall have qualified.

4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representatives may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them.

5. Sections 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the ratification of this article.

6. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

Amendment 21 - Amendment 18 Repealed. Ratified 12/5/1933. History

1. The eighteenth article of amendment to the Constitution of the United States is hereby repealed.

2. The transportation or importation into any State, Territory, or possession of the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicating liquors, in violation of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited.

3. The article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by conventions in the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

Amendment 22 - Presidential Term Limits. Ratified 2/27/1951. History

1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of the President more than once. But this Article shall not apply to any person holding the office of President, when this Article was proposed by the Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acting as President, during the term within which this Article becomes operative from holding the office of President or acting as President during the remainder of such term.

2. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.

Amendment 23 - Presidential Vote for District of Columbia. Ratified 3/29/1961. History

1. The District constituting the seat of Government of the United States shall appoint in such manner as the Congress may direct: A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addition to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the election of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such duties as provided by the twelfth article of amendment.

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 24 - Poll Tax Barred. Ratified 1/23/1964. History

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax.

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 25 - Presidential Disability and Succession. Ratified 2/10/1967. Note History

1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

2. Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon confirmation by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress.

3. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that he is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, and until he transmits to them a written declaration to the contrary, such powers and duties shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acting President.

4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and duties of the office as Acting President.

Thereafter, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives his written declaration that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and duties of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the executive department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives their written declaration that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty one days after receipt of the latter written declaration, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty one days after Congress is required to assemble, determines by two thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, the Vice President shall continue to discharge the same as Acting President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and duties of his office.

Amendment 26 - Voting Age Set to 18 Years. Ratified 7/1/1971. History

1. The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age.

2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Amendment 27 - Limiting Congressional Pay Increases. Ratified 5/7/1992. History

No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.

The Constitution of Japan

The Constitution of Japan

(Promulgated November 3, 1946)

We, the Japanese people, acting through our duly elected representatives in the National Diet, determined that we shall secure for ourselves and our posterity the fruits of peaceful cooperation with all nations and the blessings of liberty throughout this land, and resolved that never again shall we be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government, do proclaim that sovereign power resides with the people and do firmly establish this Constitution. Government is a sacred trust of the people, the authority for which is derived from the people, the powers of which are exercised by the representatives of the people, and the benefits of which are enjoyed by the people. This is a universal principle of mankind upon which this Constitution is founded. We reject and revoke all constitutions, laws, ordinances, and rescripts in conflict herewith.

We, the Japanese people, desire peace for all time and are deeply conscious of the high ideals controlling human relationship, and we have determined to preserve our security and existence, trusting in the justice and faith of the peace-loving peoples of the world. We desire to occupy an honored place in an international society striving for the preservation of peace, and the banishment of tyranny and slavery, oppression and intolerance for all time from the earth. We recognize that all peoples of the world have the right to live in peace, free from fear and want.

We believe that no nation is responsible to itself alone, but that laws of political morality are universal; and that obedience to such laws is incumbent upon all nations who would sustain their own sovereignty and justify their sovereign relationship with other nations.

We, the Japanese people, pledge our national honor to accomplish these high ideals and purposes with all our resources.

Chapter I. The Emperor

Article 1. The Emperor shall be the symbol of the State and of the unity of the People, deriving his position from the will of the people with whom resides sovereign power.

Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial House Law passed by the Diet.

Article 3. The advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state, and the Cabinet shall be responsible therefor.

Article 4. The Emperor shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in this Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government.

The Emperor may delegate the performance of his acts in matters of state as may be provided by law.

Article 5. When, in accordance with the Imperial House Law, a Regency is established, the Regent shall perform his acts in matters of state in the Emperor's name. In this case, paragraph one of the preceding article will be applicable.

Article 6. The Emperor shall appoint the Prime Minister as designated by the Diet.

The Emperor shall appoint the Chief Judge of the Supreme Court as designated by the Cabinet.

Article 7. The Emperor, with the advice and approval of the Cabinet, shall perform the following acts in matters of state on behalf of the people:


Promulgation of amendments of the constitution, laws, cabinet orders and treaties.

Convocation of the Diet.

Dissolution of the House of Representatives.

Proclamation of general election of members of the Diet.

Attestation of the appointment and dismissal of Ministers of State and other officials as provided for by law, and of full powers and credentials of Ambassadors and Ministers.

Attestation of general and special amnesty, commutation of punishment,reprieve, and restoration of rights.

Awarding of honors.

Attestation of instruments of ratification and other diplomatic documents as provided for by law.

Receiving foreign ambassadors and ministers.

Performance of ceremonial functions.


Article 8. No property can be given to, or received by, the Imperial House, nor can any gifts be made therefrom, without the authorization of the Diet.

Chapter II. Renunciation of War

Article 9. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.

In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized.

Chapter III. Rights and Duties of the People

Article 10. The conditions necessary for being a Japanese national shall be determined by law.

Article 11. The people shall not be prevented from enjoying any of the fundamental human rights. These fundamental human rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be conferred upon the people of this and future generations as eternal and inviolate rights.

Article 12. The freedoms and rights guaranteed to the people by this Constitution shall be maintained by the constant endeavor of the people, who shall refrain from any abuse of these freedoms and rights and shall always be responsible for utilizing them for the public welfare.

Article 13. All of the people shall be respected as individuals. Their right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness shall, to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare, be the supreme consideration in legislation and in other governmental affairs.

Article 14. All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin.

Peers and peerage shall not be recognized.

No privilege shall accompany any award of honor, decoration or any distinction, nor shall any such award be valid beyond the lifetime of the individual who now holds or hereafter may receive it.

Article 15. The people have the inalienable right to choose their public officials and to dismiss them.

All public officials are servants of the whole community and not of any group thereof.

Universal adult suffrage is guaranteed with regard to the election of public officials.

In all elections, secrecy of the ballot shall not be violated. A voter shall not be answerable, publicly or privately, for the choice he has made.

Article 16. Every person shall have the right of peaceful petition for the redress of damage, for the removal of public officials, for the enactment, repeal or amendment of laws, ordinances or regulations and for other matters; nor shall any person be in any way discriminated against for sponsoring such a petition.

Article 17. Every person may sue for redress as provided by law from the State or a public entity, in case he has suffered damage through illegal act of any public official.

Article 18. No person shall be held in bondage of any kind. Involuntary servitude,except as punishment for crime, is prohibited.

Article 19. Freedom of thought and conscience shall not be violated.

Article 20. Freedom of religion is guaranteed to all. No religious organization shall receive any privileges from the State, nor exercise any political authority.

No person shall be compelled to take part in any religious act, celebration, rite or practice.

The State and its organs shall refrain from religious education or any other religious activity.

Article 21. Freedom of assembly and association as well as speech, press and all other forms of expression are guaranteed.

No censorship shall be maintained, nor shall the secrecy of any means of communication be violated.

Article 22. Every person shall have freedom to choose and change his residence and to choose his occupation to the extent that it does not interfere with the public welfare.

Freedom of all persons to move to a foreign country and to divest themselves of their nationality shall be inviolate.

Article 23. Academic freedom is guaranteed.

Article 24. Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis.

With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.

Article 25. All people shall have the right to maintain the minimum standards of wholesome and cultured living.

In all spheres of life, the State shall use its endeavors for the promotion and extension of social welfare and security, and of public health.

Article 26. All people shall have the right to receive an equal education correspondent to their ability, as provided by law.

All people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary education as provided for by law. Such compulsory education shall be free.

Article 27. All people shall have the right and the obligation to work.

Standards for wages, hours, rest and other working conditions shall be fixed by law.

Children shall not be exploited.

Article 28. The right of workers to organize and to bargain and act collectively is guaranteed.

Article 29. The right to own or to hold property is inviolable. Property rights shall be defined by law, in conformity with the public welfare.

Private property may be taken for public use upon just compensation therefor.

Article 30. The people shall be liable to taxation as provided by law.

Article 31. No person shall be deprived of life or liberty, nor shall any other criminal penalty be imposed, except according to procedure established by law.

Article 32. No person shall be denied the right of access to the courts.

Article 33. No person shall be apprehended except upon warrant issued by a competent judicial officer which specifies the offense with which the person is charged, unless he is apprehended, the offense being committed.

Article 34. No person shall be arrested or detained without being at once informed of the charges against him or without the immediate privilege of counsel; nor shall he be detained without adequate cause; and upon demand of any person such cause must be immediately shown in open court in his presence and the presence of his counsel.

Article 35. The right of all persons to be secure in their homes, papers and effects against entries, searches and seizures shall not be impaired except upon warrant issued for adequate cause and particularly describing the place to be searched and things to be seized, or except as provided by Article 33.

Each search or seizure shall be made upon separate warrant issued by a competent judicial officer.

Article 36. The infliction of torture by any public officer and cruel punishments are absolutely forbidden.

Article 37. In all criminal cases the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial tribunal.

He shall be permitted full opportunity to examine all witnesses, and he shall have the right of compulsory process for obtaining witnesses on his behalf at public expense.

At all times the accused shall have the assistance of competent counsel who shall, if the accused is unable to secure the same by his own efforts, be assigned to his use by the State.

Article 38. No person shall be compelled to testify against himself.

Confession made under compulsion, torture or threat, or after prolonged arrest or detention shall not be admitted in evidence.

No person shall be convicted or punished in cases where the only proof against him is his own confession.

Article 39. No person shall be held criminally liable for an act which was lawful at the time it was committed, or of which he has been acquitted, nor shall he be placed in double jeopardy.

Article 40. Any person, in case he is acquitted after he has been arrested or detained, may sue the State for redress as provided by law.

Chapter IV. The Diet

Article 41. The Diet shall be the highest organ of state power, and shall be the sole law-making organ of the State.

Article 42. The Diet shall consist of two Houses, namely the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors.

Article 43. Both Houses shall consist of elected members, representative of all the people.

The number of the members of each House shall be fixed by law.

Article 44. The qualifications of members of both Houses and their electors shall be fixed by law. However, there shall be no discrimination because of race, creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or income.

Article 45. The term of office of members of the House of Representatives shall be four years. However, the term shall be terminated before the full term is up in case the House of Representatives is dissolved.

Article 46. The term of office of members of the House of Councillors shall be six years, and election for half the members shall take place every three years.

Article 47. Electoral districts, method of voting and other matters pertaining to the method of election of members of both Houses shall be fixed by law.

Article 48. No person shall be permitted to be a member of both Houses simultaneously.

Article 49. Members of both Houses shall receive appropriate annual payment from the national treasury in accordance with law.

Article 50. Except in cases provided by law, members of both Houses shall be exempt from apprehension while the Diet is in session, and any members apprehended before the opening of the session shall be freed during the term of the session upon demand of the House.

Article 51. Members of both Houses shall not be held liable outside the House for speeches, debates or votes cast inside the House.

Article 52. An ordinary session of the Diet shall be convoked once per year.

Article 53. The Cabinet may determine to convoke extraordinary sessions of the Diet. When a quarter or more of the total members of either House makes the demand, the Cabinet must determine on such convocation.

Article 54. When the House of Representatives is dissolved, there must be a general election of members of the House of Representatives within forty (40) days from the date of dissolution, and the Diet must be convoked within thirty (30) days from the date of the election.

When the House of Representatives is dissolved, the House of Councillors is closed at the same time. However, the Cabinet may in time of national emergency convoke the House of Councillors in emergency session.

Measures taken at such session as mentioned in the proviso of the preceding paragraph shall be provisional and shall become null and void unless agreed to by the House of Representatives within a period of ten (10) days after the opening of the next session of the Diet.

Article 55. Each House shall judge disputes related to qualifications of its members. However, in order to deny a seat to any member, it is necessary to pass a resolution by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

Article 56. Business cannot be transacted in either House unless one-third or more of total membership is present.

All matters shall be decided, in each House, by a majority of those present, except as elsewhere provided in the Constitution, and in case of a tie, the presiding officer shall decide the issue.

Article 57. Deliberation in each House shall be public. However, a secret meeting may be held where a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present passes a resolution therefor.

Each House shall keep a record of proceedings. This record shall be published and given general circulation, excepting such parts of proceedings of secret session as may be deemed to require secrecy.

Upon demand of one-fifth or more of the members present, votes of members on any matter shall be recorded in the minutes.

Article 58. Each House shall select its own president and other officials.

Each House shall establish its rules pertaining to meetings, proceedings and internal discipline, and may punish members for disorderly conduct. However, in order to expel a member, a majority of two-thirds or more of those members present must pass a resolution thereon.

Article 59. A bill becomes a law on passage by both Houses, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution.

A bill which is passed by the House of Representatives, and upon which the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, becomes a law when passed a second time by the House of Representatives by a majority of two-thirds or more of the members present.

The provision of the preceding paragraph does not preclude the House of Representatives from calling for the meeting of a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law.

Failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within sixty (60) days after receipt of a bill passed by the House of Representatives, time in recess excepted, may be determined by the House of Representatives to constitute a rejection of the said bill by the House of Councillors.

Article 60. The budget must first be submitted to the House of Representatives.

Upon consideration of the budget, when the House of Councillors makes a decision different from that of the House of Representatives, and when no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or in the case of failure by the House of Councillors to take final action within thirty (30) days, the period of recess excluded, after the receipt of the budget passed by the House of Representatives, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 61. The second paragraph of the preceding article applies also to the Diet approval required for the conclusion of treaties.

Article 62. Each House may conduct investigations in relation to government, and may demand the presence and testimony of witnesses, and the production of records.

Article 63. The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State may, at any time, appear in either House for the purpose of speaking on bills, regardless of whether they are members of the House or not. They must appear when their presence is required in order to give answers or explanations.

Article 64. The Diet shall set up an impeachment court from among the members of both Houses for the purpose of trying those judges against whom removal proceedings have been instituted.

Matters relating to impeachment shall be provided by law.

Chapter V. The Cabinet

Article 65. Executive power shall be vested in the Cabinet.

Article 66. The Cabinet shall consist of the Prime Minister, who shall be its head, and other Ministers of State, as provided for by law.

The Prime Minister and other Ministers of State must be civilians.

The Cabinet, in the exercise of executive power, shall be collectively responsible to the Diet.

Article 67. The Prime Minister shall be designated from among the members of the Diet by a resolution of the Diet. This designation shall precede all other business.

If the House of Representatives and the House of Councillors disagree and if no agreement can be reached even through a joint committee of both Houses, provided for by law, or the House of Councillors fails to make designation within ten (10) days, exclusive of the period of recess, after the House of Representatives has made designation, the decision of the House of Representatives shall be the decision of the Diet.

Article 68. The Prime Minister shall appoint the Ministers of State. However, a majority of their number must be chosen from among the members of the Diet.

The Prime Minister may remove the Ministers of State as he chooses.

Article 69. If the House of Representatives passes a nonconfidence resolution, or rejects a confidence resolution, the Cabinet shall resign en masse, unless the House of Representatives is dissolved within ten (10) days.

Article 70. When there is a vacancy in the post of Prime Minister, or upon the first convocation of the Diet after a general election of members of the House of Representatives, the Cabinet shall resign en masse.

Article 71. In the cases mentioned in the two preceding articles, the Cabinet shall continue its functions until the time when a new Prime Minister is appointed.

Article 72. The Prime Minister, representing the Cabinet, submits bills, reports on general national affairs and foreign relations to the Diet and exercises control and supervision over various administrative branches.

Article 73. The Cabinet, in addition to other general administrative functions, shall perform the following functions:


Administer the law faithfully; conduct affairs of state.

Manage foreign affairs.

Conclude treaties. However, it shall obtain prior or, depending on circumstances, subsequent approval of the Diet.

Administer the civil service, in accordance with standards established by law.

Prepare the budget, and present it to the Diet.

Enact cabinet orders in order to execute the provisions of this Constitution and of the law. However, it cannot include penal provisions in such cabinet orders unless authorized by such law.

Decide on general amnesty, special amnesty, commutation of punishment, reprieve, and restoration of rights.


Article 74. All laws and cabinet orders shall be signed by the competent Minister of State and countersigned by the Prime Minister.

Article 75. The Ministers of State, during their tenure of office, shall not be subject to legal action without the consent of the Prime Minister. However, the right to take that action is not impaired hereby.

Chapter VI. Judiciary

Article 76. The whole judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as are established by law.

No extraordinary tribunal shall be established, nor shall any organ or agency of the Executive be given final judicial power.

All judges shall be independent in the exercise of their conscience and shall be bound only by this Constitution and the laws.

Article 77. The Supreme Court is vested with the rule-making power under which it determines the rules of procedure and of practice, and of matters relating to attorneys, the internal discipline of the courts and the administration of judicial affairs.

Public procurators shall be subject to the rule-making power of the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court may delegate the power to make rules for inferior courts to such courts.

Article 78. Judges shall not be removed except by public impeachment unless judicially declared mentally or physically incompetent to perform official duties. No disciplinary action against judges shall be administered by any executive organ or agency.

Article 79. The Supreme Court shall consist of a Chief Judge and such number of judges as may be determined by law; all such judges excepting the Chief Judge shall be appointed by the Cabinet.

The appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court shall be reviewed by the people at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives following their appointment, and shall be reviewed again at the first general election of members of the House of Representatives after a lapse of ten (10) years, and in the same manner thereafter.

In cases mentioned in the foregoing paragraph, when the majority of the voters favors the dismissal of a judge, he shall be dismissed.

Matters pertaining to review shall be prescribed by law.

The judges of the Supreme Court shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

All such judges shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 80. The judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the Cabinet from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court. All such judges shall hold office for a term of ten (10) years with privilege of reappointment, provided that they shall be retired upon the attainment of the age as fixed by law.

The judges of the inferior courts shall receive, at regular stated intervals, adequate compensation which shall not be decreased during their terms of office.

Article 81. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort with power to determine the constitutionality of any law, order, regulation or official act.

Article 82. Trials shall be conducted and judgment declared publicly.

Where a court unanimously determines publicity to be dangerous to public order or morals, a trial may be conducted privately, but trials of political offenses, offenses involving the press or cases wherein the rights of people as guaranteed in Chapter III of this Constitution are in question shall always be conducted publicly.

Chapter VII. Finance

Article 83. The power to administer national finances shall be exercised as the Diet shall determine.

Article 84. No new taxes shall be imposed or existing ones modified except by law or under such conditions as law may prescribe.

Article 85. No money shall be expended, nor shall the State obligate itself, except as authorized by the Diet.

Article 86. The Cabinet shall prepare and submit to the Diet for its consideration and decision a budget for each fiscal year.

Article 87. In order to provide for unforeseen deficiencies in the budget, a reserve fund may be authorized by the Diet to be expended upon the responsibility of the Cabinet.

The Cabinet must get subsequent approval of the Diet for all payments from the reserve fund.

Article 88. All property of the Imperial Household shall belong to the State. All expenses of the Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget.

Article 89. No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association, or for any charitable, educational or benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority.

Article 90. Final accounts of the expenditures and revenues of the State shall be audited annually by a Board of Audit and submitted by the Cabinet to the Diet, together with the statement of audit, during the fiscal year immediately following the period covered.

The organization and competency of the Board of Audit shall be determined by law.

Article 91. At regular intervals and at least annually the Cabinet shall report to the Diet and the people on the state of national finances.

Chapter VIII. Local Self-Government

Article 92. Regulations concerning organization and operations of local public entities shall be fixed by law in accordance with the principle of local autonomy.

Article 93. The local public entities shall establish assemblies as their deliberative organs, in accordance with law.

The chief executive officers of all local public entities, the members of their assemblies, and such other local officials as may be determined by law shall be elected by direct popular vote within their several communities.

Article 94. Local public entities shall have the right to manage their property, affairs and administration and to enact their own regulations within law.

Article 95. A special law, applicable only to one local public entity, cannot be enacted by the Diet without the consent of the majority of the voters of the local public entity concerned, obtained in accordance with law.

Chapter IX. Amendments

Article 96. Amendments to this Constitution shall be initiated by the Diet, through a concurring vote of two-thirds or more of all the members of each House and shall thereupon be submitted to the people for ratification, which shall require the affirmative vote of a majority of all votes cast thereon, at a special referendum or at such election as the Diet shall specify.

Amendments when so ratified shall immediately be promulgated by the Emperor in the name of the people, as an integral part of this Constitution.

Chapter X. Supreme Law

Article 97. The fundamental human rights by this Constitution guaranteed to the people of Japan are fruits of the age-old struggle of man to be free; they have survived the many exacting tests for durability and are conferred upon this and future generations in trust, to be held for all time inviolate.

Article 98. This Constitution shall be the supreme law of the nation and no law, ordinance, imperial rescript or other act of government, or part thereof, contrary to the provisions hereof, shall have legal force or validity.

The treaties concluded by Japan and established laws of nations shall be faithfully observed.

Article 99. The Emperor or the Regent as well as Ministers of State, members of the Diet, judges, and all other public officials have the obligation to respect and uphold this Constitution.

Chapter XI. Supplementary Provisions

Article 100. This Constitution shall be enforced as from the day when the period of six months will have elapsed counting from the day of its promulgation.

The enactment of laws necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution, the election of members of the House of Councillors and the procedure for the convocation of the Diet and other preparatory procedures necessary for the enforcement of this Constitution may be executed before the day prescribed in the preceding paragraph.

Article 101. If the House of Councillors is not constituted before the effective date of this Constitution, the House of Representatives shall function as the Diet until such time as the House of Councillors shall be constituted.

Article 102. The term of office for half the members of the House of Councillors serving in the first term under this Constitution shall be three years. Members falling under this category shall be determined in accordance with law.

Article 103. The Ministers of State, members of the House of Representatives and judges in office on the effective date of this Constitution, and all other public officials who occupy positions corresponding to such positions as are recognized by this Constitution shall not forfeit their positions automatically on account of the enforcement of this Constitution unless otherwise specified by law. When, however, successors are elected or appointed under the provisions of this Constitution, they shall forfeit their positions as a matter of course.

Nguyễn Đình Đăng :Đáp số cho một bài viết

Đáp số cho một bài viết

05/05/2009 | 9:53 sáng |

Tác giả: Nguyễn Đình Đăng

Chuyên mục: Văn học - Nghệ thuật

Thẻ: Tự do sáng tạo

Trong bài Tự do trong sáng tạo, tác giả Trần Văn Tích viết rằng tôi đã “cho biết âm nhạc, hội hoạ không được hưởng tự do tuyệt đối.” Thực ra tôi không hề khẳng định như vậy.

Bài viết Âm nhạc, hội hoạ, và kiểm duyệt của tôi, tóm tắt lại, chỉ gồm hai ý sau:

1. Muốn hiểu được âm nhạc và hội họa thì cũng cần phải học, và khi đã học rồi thì sẽ tránh được những tranh cãi vô bổ.

2. Ở các nước văn minh dân chủ (như Nhật Bản) chính quyền không can thiệp vào nghệ thuật.

Điều 21 trong Hiến pháp Nhật Bản viết: “Quyền tự do hội họp, tự do ngôn luận, tự do báo chí và tất cả các dạng khác của biểu hiện được đảm bảo. Không được duy trì kiểm duyệt. Không được xâm phạm bí mật thông tin dưới mọi hình thức.” Như vậy có nghĩa là, ở Nhật Bản, kiểm duyệt là vi hiến.

Như một số người Việt Nam khác, tôi cũng muốn đất nước của tôi trở thành một nước văn minh dân chủ, và nghệ sĩ Việt Nam nói riêng cũng như tất cả người dân Việt Nam nói chung cũng được hưởng quyền tự do cao nhất của con người là tự do ngôn luận và tự do biểu hiện, như các bạn nghệ sĩ và công dân Nhật Bản. Vì thế tôi đề nghị nhà nước Việt Nam “giải tán mọi cơ quan kiểm duyệt văn hoá cũng như bãi bỏ việc bắt các nghệ sĩ phải xin phép xuất bản, triển lãm, trình diễn tác phẩm của mình” để “trả lại cho công chúng quyền tự đánh giá và phán xét” càng sớm càng tốt. Đi đôi với việc này là việc đổi mới hệ thống giáo dục đang hết sức trì trệ ở Việt Nam, ít nhất là theo một số giải pháp rất cụ thể như tôi đã đề xuất trong bài “Tại sao giáo dục Việt Nam khủng hoảng và đâu là lối thoát” viết cách đây 5 năm, trong đó có việc: 1) đưa âm nhạc và mỹ thuật vào giảng dạy ở trường phổ thông, 2) tư nhân hoá toàn bộ việc xuất bản sách giáo khoa, 3) đảm bảo cho các thày cô có thu nhập nuôi sống được gia đình họ, và 4) bãi bỏ toàn bộ kỳ thi vào đại học.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres: La Grande Odalisque (1814), Musée du Louvre

Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres: La Grande Odalisque (1814), Musée du Louvre

Tôi muốn lưu ý rằng, trong bài viết của tôi, vài cô cậu học sinh Nhật tự bịt mắt mình khi nhìn thấy tranh khỏa thân là học sinh trung học (có thể mới chỉ là năm đầu, tức độ 13 tuổi). Sau khi tốt nghiệp 3 năm trung học, bước vào cao học (tức 16 tuổi ), tất cả học sinh ở Nhật đều đã được dạy kỹ về mỹ thuật thế giới, bao gồm từ bức “La Grande Odalisque” không mảnh vải che thân của Dominique Ingres tới các kiệt tác của Salvador Dalí mà ông Trần Văn Tích gọi là các bức tranh “siêu thực mê sảng“, hay hàng loạt các tranh khỏa thân của Paul Cézanne, Henri Matisse v.v. Dĩ nhiên là các cô cậu bây giờ không việc gì phải tự bịt mắt mình nữa sau khi đã được học và đã tạm hiểu thế nào là nghệ thuật. Và cũng vì vậy mà ta cũng không ngại các cô cậu sẽ lẫn lộn tự do tuyệt đối trong sáng tạo nghệ thuật với tự do… tốc váy trước mặt nữ hoàng Anh, như ông Trần Văn Tích đã lo xa.

Còn về các “quy định rõ ràng” của một vài địa điểm công cộng ở Nhật thì, như tôi đã giải thích, lý do là vì có nhiều trẻ nhỏ lui tớí. Điều này cũng tương tự như TV (ở Nhật) có các chương trình dành cho người lớn, mà trẻ em không nên xem, hay các hiệu cho thuê băng video (ở Nhật) có quầy băng sex được che rèm. Đơn giản có vậy thôi. Không phải vì có trẻ em mà đi cấm tất cả các chương trình dành cho người lớn! Bảo tàng ở Kyushu không muốn treo tranh vẽ bom nguyên tử nổ trên đầu Nhật Hoàng Showa vì ban giám đốc sợ những người cánh hữu đến sinh sự, chứ không phải do quy định kiểm duyệt của ban văn hoá tư tưởng nào đó của nhà nước. Khác với bảo tàng ở Kyushu, tại nhiều nơi khác ở Nhật người ta không sợ những người cánh hữu. Ví dụ bức tranh nói trên vẫn được triển lãm ở một bảo tàng tại Tokyo mà chẳng gặp rắc rối gì. Cách đây vài năm đã có vụ chủ bút một tờ báo lớn của Nhật bị một người cánh hữu hành hung (ném gạt tàn thuốc lá vào đầu, gây thương tích) chỉ vì đã không in hết các tước hiệu của hoàng thái tử Nhật Bản trong một bài báo, nhưng từ chối đính chính với lý do rằng điều đó không cần thiết trong phạm vi tự do báo chí. Tất nhiên toà án đã ra lệnh bắt và tuyên phạt người đã hành hung ông chủ bút. Các ví dụ như vậy trong các lĩnh vực ở trong cũng như ngoài nghệ thuật ở Nhật cũng như ở các nước văn minh khác có thể kể không hết. Chẳng hạn English Garden ở Munich có hẳn một khu cho người lớn trẻ con phơi nắng và vui chơi mà lại… khoả thân hoàn toàn gọi là FKK (Freie Körperkultur = Free Body Culture, tức là “Văn hoá tự do thân thể”). Ai thấy bị xúc phạm cứ việc đi chơi chỗ khác. Song tôi không muốn sa vào các ví dụ lạc đề này để khỏi làm độc giả phân tán. Quay lại vấn đề tự do sáng tạo, Hiến pháp của Nhật Bản cho ta thấy rằng chính kiểm duyệt trong văn học nghệ thuật mới xúc phạm nhân phẩm của văn nghệ sĩ và công chúng.

Các nhận xét từ cuốn Prétextes (1903) của André Gide như câu ở đầu bài viết của ông Trần Văn Tích cũng như đoạn “nghệ thuật luôn luôn có cưỡng chế là hệ luận. Nghĩ rằng nghệ thuật càng vươn lên cao khi càng có tự do cũng giống như nghĩ rằng cái dây níu con diều giấy lại không cho nó tung hoành trong bầu trời…” mà ông Trần Văn Tích đã trích dẫn nhưng lại quên không để trong ngoặc kép, cần được hiểu đúng văn cảnh của chúng. Nguyên văn câu này của Gide là: “L’art est toujours le résultat d’une contrainte. Croire qu’il s’élève d’autant plus haut qu’il est plus libre, c’est croire que ce qui retient le cerf-volant de monter, c’est sa corde.” Tuy nhiên dịch: “L’art est toujours le résultat d’une contrainte.” thành “Nghệ thuật luôn luôn có cưỡng chế là hệ luận.” theo tôi không được chính xác, nếu không nói là nhầm lẫn. Câu này cần được dịch là: “Nghệ thuật luôn là kết quả của một sự hạn chế do bị ràng buộc.” thì đúng hơn, vì “cưỡng chế” (强制) trong tiếng Hán - Việt có nghĩa là “dùng vũ lực để bắt phải tuân theo”. 34 tuổi, Gide nhận ra rằng “Vẻ đẹp không bao giờ là một sản phẩm tự nhiên; mà chỉ có được nhờ những hạn chế nhân tạo. Nghệ thuật và Tự nhiên cạnh tranh với nhau trên trái đất.“(Nguyên văn: “La beauté ne sera jamais une production naturelle; elle ne s’obtient que par une artificielle contrainte. Art et Nature sont en rivalité sur terre.” - Nouveaux Prétextes, 1904). Điều này khá đơn giản nếu ta nhớ tới, chẳng hạn, tỉ lệ vàng như một hạn chế phải tuân theo trong nghệ thuật và kiến trúc từ thời Phục hưng. Những hạn chế do ràng buộc này từng được các thiên tài vận dụng để tạo nên các kiệt tác. Ví dụ, chỉ dùng đá cẩm thạch mà Michelangelo gây cho ta ảo giác về da thịt trên tượng David. Chỉ dùng phấn đỏ và giấy mà Leonardo Da Vinci đã tả chất liệu của nếp vải rất tuyệt vời. Moses variations được Nicolo Paganini viết cho riêng một dây Sol của đàn vĩ cầm (violin). Đó là những vẻ đẹp do con người sáng tạo ra trong phạm vi các hạn chế do chất liệu ràng buộc. Nhưng cũng chính vì thế mà đó là những vẻ đẹp không thể có được trong tự nhiên. Song, những hạn chế ràng buộc để tạo nên các vẻ đẹp đó chẳng liên quan gì đến tự do sáng tạo bị cưỡng chế (theo đúng nghĩa của từ này) bởi sự kiểm duyệt của chính quyền mà bài viết của tôi đề cập. Điều này cũng tương tự như việc viết văn theo đúng văn phạm không có liên quan gì đến việc các câu văn bị cắt đi bởi kiểm duyệt. Trong khi đó, ông Trần Văn Tích buộc một độc giả như tôi phải hiểu rằng, nghệ sĩ được ví như con chim, còn kiểm duyệt thì được ví như không khí nâng cánh con chim, nhờ đó mà nó mới “đập cánh tung mình” lên được! Tiếp tục suy diễn “à la Mr. Trần Văn Tích”, ta sẽ thấy nếu không có kiểm duyệt, nghệ sĩ chẳng những không bay lên được, hoặc sẽ rơi tòm từ trên không xuống nếu đang bay, mà còn chết tươi vì thiếu không khí để thở hít.

Chúng ta không nên quên rằng, các tác phẩm của André Gide phản ánh một cuộc đấu tranh nội tâm giữa một bên là các ước lệ xã hội, một bên là cái Tôi chân thật nhất mà Gide luôn muốn đạt tới. Cũng không nên quên rằng, vào năm 1904 Gide chỉ có thể biết được đến hội hoạ và âm nhạc ấn tượng là cùng. Thậm chí trường phái dã thú (fauvism) phải một năm sau mới được nhận tên khai sinh tại Salon d’Automne ở Paris (năm 1905), nói chi đến hội họa lập thể (cubism), trừu tượng (abstractionism), siêu thực (surrealism), cường thực (hyperrealism), hay âm nhạc phi điệu (atonal music) của Arnold Schönberg, v.v… sau này, là những thứ ngày nay đã trở thành kinh điển cho những ai học hội hoạ và âm nhạc. Năm 1930, tức là 26 năm sau khi viết Prétextes và Nouveaux Prétextes, Gide (lúc đó đã 61 tuổi) được mời sang thăm Liên Xô với tư cách là một nhà văn thân cộng. Kết quả của chuyến đi này là cuốn Từ Liên Xô trở về (Retour de L’U.R.S.S.) viết năm 1936, trong đó Gide cho thấy ông đã “sáng mắt” ra như thế nào sau khi được mục kích xã hội Liên Xô dưới chế độ của Stalin. Ông nói ông phải viết cuốn sách đó để “nhân dân lao động hiểu là họ bị những người cộng sản lừa dối, như họ đang bị Moscow lừa ngày hôm nay” (Que le peuple des travailleurs comprenne qu’il est dupé par les communistes, comme ceux-ci le sont aujourd’hui par Moscou.) Quá trình sàng lọc vẫn tiếp tục. Vài thế kỷ nữa, nhân loại sẽ chỉ giữ lại những giá trị đích thực từ những gì chúng ta biết và trải nghiệm ngày hôm nay. Những gì gượng ép, xấu xa, phi nhân tính, chống lại loài người, sớm muộn sẽ bị loại bỏ, cho dù thời gian có thể mất tới 74 năm, hoặc lâu hơn nữa.

“Bao năm trời tôi tưởng tôi la hét trong sa mạc hoang vu không có ai nghe, sau đó thì cũng chỉ nói được với một số rất ít thính giả, song hôm nay các vị đã chứng minh cho tôi thấy rằng tôi đã đúng khi tin vào tư chất của một thiểu số, và rằng sớm hay muộn thiểu số đó sẽ thắng thế.” Đó là lời của André Gide trong diễn từ nhận giải Nobel Văn chương năm 1947 mà tôi trích thay lời kết với hy vọng cái ngày Việt Nam có được một André Gide của mình sẽ không còn quá xa.

Tokyo 4/5/2009

© 2009 Nguyễn Đình Đăng

Đúng 100 ngày Obama cầm quyền

BBC Vietnamese

Đúng 100 ngày Obama cầm quyền

Cột mốc 100 ngày đối với người Mỹ rất quan trọng để nói đến kết quả và đánh giá viễn cảnh toàn bộ nhiệm kỳ của tổng thống.

Franklin Roosevelt đã chỉ cần từng đó thời gian để chuẩn bị và đưa quốc hội vào tiến trình triển khai New Deal. Gerald Ford một tháng sau khi nhậm chức đã ân xá cho người tiền nhiệm Richard Nixon để rồi trả giá cho lần tranh cử kế tiếp.

Bill Clinton, trong ba tháng đầu đã sai lầm khi cho ngưng kế hoạch cải cách an sinh xã hội đầy tham vọng, hoặc tạo ra xung đột về sự có mặt của giới đồng tính trong quân đội. Còn Ronald Reagan, bỏ qua vấn đề đối ngoại, chương trình chấn hưng kinh tế đã cho thấy hiệu quả chỉ trong 6 tháng kể từ ngày nhậm chức.

Một vài cái vấp

Tổng thống Obama trong 100 ngày đầu tiên đã tránh được những sai lầm cơ bản nhưng không phải không bị vấp.

Obama hứa sẽ thay đổi diện mạo của đại salon chính trị Washington thì vấp ngay khi bổ nhiệm thành viên nội các. Bộ trưởng Y tế Tom Daschle nợ 146 nghìn đôla tiền thuế. Trong năm 2008, Daschle có thu nhập hai triệu đôla, mà cử tri không hiểu ông ta lấy từ đâu, nếu không phải giải quyết "cửa vào" với vai trò vận động hành lang cho các công ty dược phẩm trước đó.

Tương tự, vấn đề chưa trả thuế cũng được đặt ra với bộ trưởng ngân khố Tim Geithner. Sự bất ổn trong kế hoạch tái thiết hệ thống tài chính đã khiến Tim Geithner khó khăn lắm mới thoát khỏi từ chức.

Với ý định gặp gia đình của nạn nhân các vụ khủng bố ngày 11/09/2001 và tàu USS "Cole" để chia sẻ thì Obama đã bị nhiều người phê phán thẳng thừng việc đóng cửa nhà tù Guantanamo.

Huỷ bỏ hai bộ luật cấm ngân sách nhà nước bảo trợ các chương trình phá thai và nghiên cứu nhân bản tế bào gốc của người tiền nhiệm W. Bush, Barack Obama bị xung khắc trong quan hệ với Vatican, mà hậu quả là Vatican đã khước từ ba lần ứng viên giữ chức đại sứ Hoa Kỳ tại Toà Thánh Giáo hội công giáo.

Cộm nhất là xì-căng-đan AIG. Khi chính phủ bơm 170 tỷ đôla cho AIG thì các sếp của AIG bỏ túi 165 triệu tiền thưởng. Hưởng phần lớn số tiền này là bộ phận làm ra sản phẩm tài chính mà chính nó chịu trách nhiệm về các mạo hiểm phát sinh đưa công ty đến phá sản.

Người ta cũng nói AIG trong những năm qua đã hỗ trợ hào phóng cho vận động bầu cử của Christopher Dodd, chủ tịch Uỷ ban Tài chính Thượng viện và thượng nghị sĩ Barack Obama.

Trước trụ sở các tập đoàn tài chính như AIG, American Express, Chase và Citygroup, thường xuyên có các cuộc biểu tình với khẩu hiệu "Lifestyles of the rich and shameless" (Lối sống của những kẻ giàu có và không biết hổ thẹn).

Tuyên bố thay đổi mức thu thuế, trong đó hạn chế việc khấu trừ chi phí cho hoạt động từ thiện - một yếu tố làm nhẹ gánh nặng suy thoái - cũng là sai lầm của chính phủ Obama. Rất may, Obama đã kịp thời rút ngay ý tưởng này.

Obamamania

Phải nói rằng, tổng thống Barack Obama rất nhanh chóng nhận ra khuất tuất của mình trong các quyết định và khi cần thiết ông đã rất cương quyết. Người Mỹ nhận ra điều này và Obamamania vẫn còn rất sống động.

Theo Newsweek (số 18, 3/05/2009), chỉ số ủng hộ Barack Obama của người Mỹ trong tuần cuối vừa rồi vượt quá 63%. Tuy Obama có mất đi sự ủng hộ của những người Cộng Hoà, nhưng đa số cử tri độc lập vẫn tin tưởng ông, còn với những người Dân Chủ thì đương nhiên.

Theo kết quả thăm dò của CNN/Opinion Research Corporation, 58% cho rằng tổng thống Obama có kế hoạch rõ ràng để đưa Hoa Kỳ ra khỏi suy thoái kinh tế.

Người ta cũng so sánh Barack Obama với Franklin D. Rosevelt và cho rằng Obama muốn trở thành Ronald Reagan nhưng chỉ về hình thức còn khác về nội dung, Cách mạng Tân tiến thay cho Cách mạng Bảo thủ.

Darrell West, giám đốc các vấn đề về cấu trúc chính phủ của Brookings Institution nói với Newsweek rằng, với Obama, "không có gì chống đối sự quay lại một kịch bản" của Reagan.

Thách đố phía trước

Barack Obama đưa ra thời điểm chấm dứt hoạt động quân sự của 140 ngàn lính Mỹ tại Irag vào ngày 31/10/2010 và rút hoàn toàn đến cuối 2011, đồng thời tăng quân cho Afghanistan.

Nhưng người ta đặt câu hỏi,với Iraq sẽ ra sao nếu tình hình không tiến triển như hiện nay? Còn tuần báo Đức Der Spiegel (16/03/09) dự đoán Afghanstan có thể là Việt Nam của Obama.

Obama hứa hẹn trong vòng 2 năm sẽ tạo ra thêm 3,5 triệu việc làm. Trong ba tháng vừa qua, mỗi ngày bình quân tại Hoa Kỳ mất đi 20 ngàn việc làm, tính từ giai đoạn suy thoái kinh tế, có khoảng 5 triệu người thất nghiệp, cao nhất từ 25 năm nay.

Mặc dù đã có những tín hiệu phục hồi trong ngành xây dựng và bán lẻ, nhưng theo các nhà quan sát, tình hình thị trường lao động sẽ còn xấu hơn.

Tổng thống Obama muốn an sinh xã hội của công dân phải được nhà nước bảo đảm hoàn toàn. Ông muốn xây dựng các trường mẫu giáo công và mở rộng cánh cửa đại học cho mọi tầng lớp. Ông cũng muốn Hoa Kỳ phải thoát khỏi lệ thuộc nhanh nhất khỏi dầu mỏ, than và khí đốt bằng cách đầu tư phát triển năng lượng mới.

Thế nhưng tất cả sẽ kéo theo một núi tiền. Theo Reuters hôm 26/02/09, toàn bộ gói kích hoạt kinh tế của Hoa Kỳ là 787,2 tỷ đôla cho giai đoạn 2009-2019.

Bội chi ngân sách cho năm 2009 là 1,75 ngàn tỷ đôla, cao nhất từ Thế chiến II (hơn 400 tỷ 2008), trong đó 750 tỷ trợ cứu các ngân hàng, 634 tỷ cho hệ thống sức khoẻ và 537 tỷ cho quân sự, ít hơn 100 tỷ so với 2008.

Tổng thống Obama giải thích: "Chúng ta phải bội chi trong một thời gian ngắn để bảo đảm nền kinh tế có được hỗ trợ tức thời và thúc đẩy tăng trưởng. Sự lựa chọn và các quyết định mà chúng ta đưa ra thật nặng nề, nhưng cần thiết".

Tham vọng của Barack Obama cũng là hy vọng của người Mỹ. Không phải không thể nào không thực hiện được mà là vô vàn khó khăn. Ngay cả New York Times, tờ báo đứng về phía Obama, cũng nghi ngờ.

100 ngày dù sao cũng quá ít để phán quyết cho 1.500 ngày cả nhiệm kỳ tổng thống.

Tôi nhớ lại Daniel Finskielstein của Times đã nói sau lễ nhậm chức của Barack Obama: "Chiến thắng của Obama được hiểu một cách phổ cập như là mở đầu kỷ nguyên của tham vọng và chủ nghĩa lạc quan. Thế nhưng cũng cần chuẩn bị cho những gì ngược lại".

Sự lựa chọn tổng thống Hoa Kỳ gốc châu Phi đã làm nức lòng và rơi lệ hàng triệu người Mỹ và công dân các nước khác trên thế giới.

Nếu tổng thống Barack Obama đạt được mong muốn của mình là: "Change. We Can!" - thay đổi Hoa Kỳ một cách cơ bản, thì vào năm 2017, chia tay ông, người ta sẽ hát vang lời ca của R.E.M Michael Stipe: "Chấm dứt thế giới hiện có (và tôi cảm thấy thật tuyệt vời)".

Ngược lại, nếu như ông đánh cuộc quá cao vào một ván cờ, thì bốn năm trước đó người Mỹ sẽ nhớ tới Tom Waist mà ca rằng "Chúng tôi muốn "trở về thế giới cũ và tốt".

Bài phản ánh quan điểm của tác giả, là nhà báo, hiện đang sống tại Ba Lan.

Cúm heo lan truyền ở Mỹ

Cúm heo lan truyền ở Mỹ

Các quan chức y tế Hoa Kỳ khẳng định nước này đã có khoảng 226 ca cúm heo tại 30 tiểu bang, và người ta dự kiến số ca mắc bệnh còn gia tăng.

Họ cho biết đa phần các ca bệnh là nhẹ và việc lây lan cũng không tồi tệ hơn so với lây lan bệnh cúm thông thường.

Tổ chức Y tế Thế giới, WHO, nói mối nguy chưa phải đã qua.

Mexico, nơi dịch cúm bùng phát, nói các ca nhiễm mới đã giảm và giới chức sẽ quyết định có cho phép mở cửa lại các trường học hay không.

Trung Quốc đã cách ly hơn 70 người Mexico, làm bùng lên tranh cãi giữa hai nước.

Tuy không nêu đích danh Trung Quốc, Tổng thống Mexico ông Felipe Calderon, nói các nước "đang có các biện pháp mang tính phân biệt đối xử chỉ vì không hiểu biết".

Bộ Ngoại giao Trung Quốc nói biện pháp này "thuần túy chỉ là vấn đề cách ly y tế" chứ không phải hành động phân biệt.

Người ta cho là khoảng hơn 100 người Mexico đã thiệt mạng vì cúm heo, mặc dù cho tới nay mới khẳng định được 25 ca.

Hôm thứ Hai, Tổ chức Y tế Thế giới nói là đã có 985 trường hợp nhiễm cúm được báo cáo chính thức từ 20 quốc gia.

Việc lây truyền từ người sang người mới chỉ được khẳng định tại sáu quốc gia.

Trong các diễn biến khác:

* Truyền thông Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ cho biết một bệnh nhân đã thiệt mạng vì cúm heo ở tỉnh Antalya ở miền nam, nhưng người phát ngôn của bệnh viện bác bỏ tin này với hãng Reuters.
* Ai Cập nói họ sẽ tiếp tục giết lợn để phòng ngừa dịch cúm, sau khi có các vụ đụng độ hôm Chủ Nhật với các nông dân nuôi lợn làm 12 người bị thương.
* Hãng AFP cho biết Pháp mới khẳng định có thêm hai ca cúm heo.

"Chưa hết nguy hiểm"

Tại Mỹ, số lượng các ca nhiễm cúm heo đã tăng từ 160 lên 226. Các quan chức nói đó là do kết quả xét nghiệm bây giờ mới được đưa ra, chứ không phải số lượng các ca mắc bệnh đột nhiên tăng.

Tuy nhiên, một chuyên gia từ Trung tâm phòng ngừa và kiểm soát bệnh của Mỹ ̣- America's Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - nói virus cúm heo lan truyền tương đối nhanh.

Bác sĩ Anne Schuchat thuộc Trung Tâm này nói: "Hầu như trên toàn nước Mỹ bây giờ đã có virus này lan truyền.

"Điều này không có nghĩa là tất cả mọi người đều bị lây bệnh, mà virus chỉ đến từng cộng đồng".

Bà nói tin tốt là đa phần các ca mắc bệnh đều nhẹ, mặc dù một em bé đến từ Mexico đã thiệt mạng.

Bác sĩ Schuchat nói mặc dù bà cho rằng các ca bệnh sẽ trở nên nghiêm trọng hơn và có thể dẫn đến tử vong, điều này là không quá bất thường vì mỗi năm, trên toàn nước Mỹ có khoảng 36 ngàn người chết vì loại cúm thông thường.

Tuy nhiên, bà cảnh báo rằng nước Mỹ chưa phải đã qua khỏi cơn nguy hiểm.

Tổ chức Y tế Thế giới nói giới chức các nước không được lơ là phòng vệ và đối phó với dịch cúm bùng phát.

SOURCE : BBC .vietnamese